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1.4 The “Science” of Manipulation

Attempts to influence the thoughts and actions of others are no doubt as old as time, but manipulation did not become a science until the early twentieth century, when Ivan Pavlov, a Russian professor of psychology, published his research on conditioned (learned) reflexes. Pavlov found that by ringing a bell when he fed a dog, he could condition the dog to drool at the sound of the bell even when no food was presented. An American psychologist, John Watson, was impressed with Pavlov’s findings and applied them to human behavior. In Watson’s most famous experiment, he let a baby touch a laboratory rat. At first, the baby was unafraid. But then Watson hit a hammer against metal whenever the baby reached out to touch the rat, and the baby became frightened and cried. In time, the baby cried not only at the sight of the rat but also at the sight of anything furry, such as a stuffed animal.* Watson’s work earned him the title “father of behaviorism.”
*Modern ethical norms would not allow a child to be used in such an experiment.

译文：

1.4操纵这一“学科”

试图影响其他人的想法和行为，毫无疑问由来已久，但知道20世纪早期，以为俄罗斯心理学教授Ivan Pavlov出版了他关于条件性（习得地）放松的研究后，操纵才成为一门学科。Pavlov发现当喂一只狗时打铃，他可以使这只狗在听到铃声后流口水，甚至没有给到食物时。一个美国心理学家John Wstson对Pavlov的发现印象深刻，然后把他们用到了人类行为上。在Woston的最著名的试验中，他让一个婴儿触碰一只实验鼠。最初，这个婴儿并不害怕，但接下来当每次婴儿去触摸那只实验鼠的时候，他就用一个锤子撞击金属，这个婴儿就变得害怕而且大哭起来。这时，小孩不仅看到耗子会哭，看到其他任何有毛的动物都会哭，比如一只喂饱了的动物。*Watson的研究使他被誉为“行为学之父”。
*现代伦理道德是不允许拿小孩做这样的实验的。

drool 英 [druːl] 美 [drul]
vi. 流口水；胡说 vt. 从嘴淌下；散漫地说 n. 口水；梦话，胡说
stuffed 英 [stʌft] 美 [stʌft] 已经喂饱了的；塞满了的
ethical norms 伦理规范，道德规范

Less well known is Watson’s application of behaviorist principles to advertising. He spent the latter part of his career working for advertising agencies and soon recognized that the most effective appeal to consumers was not to the mind but to the emotions. He advised advertisers to “tell [the consumer] something that will tie him up with fear, something that will stir up a mild rage, that will call out an affectionate or love response, or strike at a deep psychological or habit need.” His attitude toward the consumer is perhaps best indicated by a statement he made in a presentation to department store executives: “The consumer is to the manufacturer, the department stores and the advertising agencies, what the green frog is to the physiologist.”16

译文：
更少为人知的是Watson’s的行为主义法则被应用到了广告里。他事业生涯的后半部分投身到了广告公司，而且很快认识到对观众来说最有效的吸引力不是思想而是情感。他建议广告商“告诉消费者一些会引起他们害怕的事情，一些可以唤起情绪激动、情感或喜好回应、或是激发内心深处或者行为上的需要。”他对消费者的态度也许可以用一个他对百货公司主管部门所做报告里的一个陈述：“消费者对制造商、百货公司和广告公司而言，犹如小青蛙对心理学家而言。”16

behaviorist [bɪ'hevjərɪst] n. 行为主义者
stir up 激起；煽动；搅拌；唤起
department store 百货公司；百货商店
executive 英 [ɪg'zekjʊtɪv; eg-] 美 [ɪɡ'zɛkjətɪv]
adj. 行政的；经营的；执行的，经营管理的
n. 总经理；执行委员会；执行者；经理主管人员
green frog 绿蛙；池蛙

Watson introduced these strategies in the 1920s and 1930s, the age of newspapers and radio. Since the advent of television, these advertising strategies have grown more sophisticated and effective, so much so that many individuals and groups with political and social agendas have adopted them. The strategies work for a number of reasons, the chief one being people’s conviction that they are impervious to manipulation. This belief is mistaken, as many researchers have demonstrated. For example, Solomon Asch showed that people’s reactions can be altered simply by changing the order of words in a series. He asked study participants to evaluate a person by a series of adjectives. When he put positive adjectives first—”intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, envious”—the participants gave a positive evaluation. When he reversed the order, with “envious” coming first and “intelligent” last, they gave a negative evaluation.17

译文：
Watson在19世纪20年代到30年代期间介绍了这些策略，报纸媒体和无线电广播媒体那个年代。自从电视的出现，这些广告策略变得越来越成熟有效，多到许多个人和组织在政治及社会会议中都用到了他们。这些策略有效的原因很多，主要的原因是人相信他们不可能被操纵；如许多研究者证明的一样，这个观念是错误的。例如，Solomon Asch表面，人的反应可能仅仅改变单词的顺序而被改变。他要求研究参与者用一些列的形容词去评估一个人，当他把积极词汇放前面时候——“聪明的，勤奋的，任性的，批判性的，顽固的，善妒的”——参与者会给出积极评价。当他调转顺序，把“善妒的”放到最前面，把“聪明的”放最后，他们就给出消极评价。

advent ['ædvɛnt] n. 到来；出现；基督降临；基督降临节
agenda 记事本；议事日程.
conviction 英 [kən'vɪkʃ(ə)n] 美 [kən'vɪkʃən]
n. 定罪；确信；证明有罪；确信，坚定的信仰
impervious 英 [ɪm'pɜːvɪəs] 美 [ɪm'pɝvɪəs] adj. 不受影响的，无动于衷的；不能渗透的
stubborn 英 ['stʌbən] 美 ['stʌbɚn] adj. 顽固的；顽强的；难处理的
envious 英 ['envɪəs] 美 ['ɛnvɪəs] adj. 羡慕的；嫉妒的

Similarly, research has shown that human memory can be manipulated. The way a question is asked can change the details in a person’s memory and even make a person remember something that never happened!18
Of course, advertisers and people with political or social agendas are not content to stimulate emotions and/or plant ideas in our minds. They also seek to reinforce those impressions by repeating them again and again. The more people hear a slogan or talking point, the more familiar it becomes. Before long, it becomes indistinguishable from ideas developed through careful thought. Sadly, “the packaging is often done so effectively that the viewer, listener, or reader does not make up his own mind at all. Instead, he inserts a packaged opinion into his mind, somewhat like inserting a DVD into a DVD player. He then pushes a button and ‘plays back’ the opinion whenever it seems appropriate to do so. He has performed acceptably without having had to think.”19Many of the beliefs we hold dearest and defend most vigorously may have been planted in our minds in just this way.

译文：
类似地，人的记忆也可能被操纵。问一个问题可以改变一个人记忆中的细节，甚至会让人记起一些从没繁盛的事。18

当然，广告商和政党及社会议程的人不会满足于刺激情感并（或者）植入观点到我们的思想中。他们同样会通过一遍又一遍地重复这些观念来强化他们。越来越多的人听到或谈论这些宣传语，它就被变得越来越为大众所熟知。不久，就通过深思熟虑，由一个成熟的观念变得不易察觉。可悲的是，“包装常常是如此有效以至于观众、听众或者读者根本没法形成他们自己的思想”。相反，他将一个打包的观点植入到了自己的思想中，有点像将一个DVD插入到一个DVD播放器里；然后他按下按钮，在任何合适的时候就回放这个观念。他全盘接受而不必思考。19需要我们深深持有或者持续捍卫的观念可能就是被以这样的一种方式植入到我们思想中。

indistinguishable 英 [ɪndɪ'stɪŋgwɪʃəb(ə)l] 美 ['ɪndɪ'stɪŋgwɪʃəbl]
adj. 不能区别的，不能辨别的；不易察觉的
vigorously 英 ['vɪg(ə)rəslɪ] 美 ['vɪgərəsli]adv. 精神旺盛地，活泼地

Many years ago, Harry A. Overstreet noted that “a climate of opinion, like a physical climate, is so pervasive a thing that those who live within it and know no other take it for granted.”20The rise of mass culture and the sophisticated use of manipulation have made this insight more relevant today than ever.

许多年前，Harry A. Overstreet解释道：“一个社会的风气，就像物理气候条件一样，它无孔不入以至于这些久居其中且不知道其他观念的人就会深以为然”20大众文化的崛起以及操纵术的熟练使用，已经使得这种洞见较过去更为贴切。